The goal of instructional designfor **distance learning** is to organize curriculum materials into sensible and usable formats so that instruction and learning can take place in the online environment. On the topic of instructional design approaches, Mager (2006) states that “since not everything can be learned at once, instruction must be offered in some sort of sequence.” Organizing content to be learned into a sequential pattern can be considered the initial step in planning out a logical learning framework (Mager, 2006).
Multiple considerations including learning theories should be considered in addition to the content to be learned. “The different approaches to instructional design are nowhere more obvious than in the ever-growing list of models” (Moore, Bates, & Grundling).
Models of instruction are usually graphed out as either linear or non-linear design approaches. In spite of this, the ideologies that support each of the models appear to have related aspects usual to other models. Best practicesassure that methods of design and instruction meet accepted quality standards for effective learning outcomes. The Sloan-C Consortium provides peer reviewed tried and true “Effective Practices” and invites educational designers and practitioners to contribute new practices on a continual basis.
In the simplest of terms, SCORM compliance ensures that content and learning objects written in one format, content management system, or **learning management system** will be transferable, readable, and usable in any other format, content management system, or learning management system.
History of Instructional Design Models
Modern instructional design models emerged during a historical period of national crisis. According to Leigh, “the advent of the Second World War presented a tremendous instructional dilemma: the rapid training of hundreds of thousands of military personnel” was urgently needed. During this time, psychologists and educators were recruited to design efficient instructional design models.
Instructional Design: Art & Science
Nichols (2008) views instructional design as both "art and science." Given the complexity of the design process using models as templates, Nichols supports the idea that "designers must still make key decisions to ensure that structured learning takes place, and they must emphasize particular learning outcomes." The "art" is equated with designers' abilities to work "innovately" within the "science" of a framework.
Definitions
****Instructional design**** is the systematic process of translating general principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials and learning. ****Instructional designers****: According to Herrington and Oliver (2002), “designers need to consider and plan the learning processes that will provide learners with the experiences that will help them to learn. The learning processes need to be carefully planned with the intended learning outcomes in mind. Planning the learning experiences involves consideration of ways to engage the learners in ways that will cause the required forms of cognition andthinking. The learning activities need to involve a variety of processes that will cause the learners to deal meaningfully with appropriate resources and information.”
An ****instructional systems design (ISD)**** for distance learning is an organizational plan or format used to achieve instructional or pedagogical goals. It is an approach or set of rules for achieving technology-based instruction.
****Pedagogical strategy**** is the method of delivering face-to-face or online instruction. According to Johnson (1997) (2), ideal instructional design strategy includes incorporation of “behavioral learning theory (e.g., positive reinforcement and repetition), cognitive learning theory (e.g., address multiple senses, present new information in motivating ways, limit the amount of information presented, and connect new information to prior knowledge), and social learning theory (e.g., encourage group interaction, peer assessment, and personal feedback). Adopting a synthesized theory of learning can have a synergistic result by integrating the most positive and powerful aspects of each individual.”
According to Morrison, Ross, & Kemp (2007), a well-designed **instructional strategy**prompts or motivates learners to actively construct meaning between what they already know and new knowledge being presented (as cited in Wittrock, 1974, 1989, & Jonassen, 1985, & Grabowski, 1996).
Four Approaches to Instructional Design
According to Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, & Zvacek (2006) there are four traditional course design approaches: Linear-designed instruction; branch-designed instruction, hypercontent-designed instruction, and learner-directed design.
The ****linear-designed****approach is based on module organization that allows learners to transition through series of readings and tasks in specific and ordered processions. Learning is sequentially organized (Simonson et al., 2006). Branch-designed instruction allows more flexibility in the order that readings and tasks are accomplished. This format is basically linear with opportunities for learners to further study in a particular area or to move on to the next level or module. There are built-in assessments that allow students to re-try learning or to move students backward to remedial areas of instruction (Simonson et al., 2006).
Hypercontent design, according to Simonson et al. (2006), “topics can be studied in a random, non-sequential manner.” Additionally, they state that students working within this framework have control over the topics studied and can do so without direct instructor control. This concept typically includes text and multimedia components such as video, audio, graphics, and pictures.
Learner-directeddesignallows students to completely determine navigation through a course. According to Simonson et al. (2006), “learners construct their own instructional strategies and even their own instructional design.” This is considered a constructivist design model that supports completely learner driven objectives. The authors caution, however, that learners “require considerable talent and effort…to be successful” in this type of learning environment.
Commonly Used Instructional Design Models
ADDIE is an acronym that stands for a five step design process. This model seems to be the most universally accepted, and is often used as an underlying design platform to which elements from other models are added. According to Kruse (2009), “the ADDIE model has been criticized by some as being too systematic, that is, too linear, too inflexible, too constraining, and even too time-consuming to implement."
Analysis --> Design --> Development --> Implementation --> Evaluation
The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model was originally published in 1978, and later editions (1990) by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled ****The Systematic Design of Instruction****.
Dick & Carey Model
According to Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes." With this nine-step model, components are executed iteratively and in parallel rather than linearly. Kemp Model of Instructional Design is a six-step non-linear plan.
Kemp Model
Gagne Model of Instruction is a nine-step instructional plan that ****Robert Gagne**** conceived based on the premise that certain “instructional events” must occur in order for learning to take place.
Gagne Model
ASSUREintegrates components of ****Gagne’s**** model for effective multimedia use. ASSURE Model Analyze learners State objectives Select instructional methods, media, and materials Utilize media and materials Require learner participation Evaluate and revise
References
Dick, W. & Carey, L. (1990). The systematic design of instruction.Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman/Little, Brown Higher Education. Herrington, J. (2002). Online learning design for dummies: Professional development strategies for beginning online designers.Edith Cowan University. Retrieved June 21, 2009, fromhttp://elrond.scam.ecu.edu.au/oliver/2002/edmedia1.pdf
Johnson, S. & Aragon, S., In Egan, T. & Lynham, S. (Eds.), Proceedings of the academy for human resource development (pp. 1022- 1029). Bowling Green, OH: AHRD.
Mager, R. F. (1988). Making instruction work. Belmont, CA: Lake Publishing Co.
Mager, R. F. (2006). Making instruction work (Rev. 2nd ed.). Atlanta, GA: CEP Press.
Martin, F. (2008). Effects of practice in a linear and non-linear web-based learning environment.Educational Technology &Society, 11 (4), 81–93.
Moore, D., Bates, A., & Grundling, J. Instructional design.Commonwealth of Learning. Chapter 08.Retrieved June 21, 2009, from http://www.col.org/SiteCollectionDocuments/Skills_Chapter08.pdf
Morrison, G., Ross, S., & Kemp, J. (2007). Designing effective instruction (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Jonh Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Nichols, M. Laidlaw College, Auckland, New Zealand, (August 2008). E-primer series – designing for e-learning. No. 3: designing for e-learning (p. 9).
Simonson, M., Smaldino, S., Albright, M., & Zvacek, S. (2006). Teaching and learning at a distance (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Instructional Design Models for Distance Learning
The goal of instructional design for **distance learning** is to organize curriculum materials into sensible and usable formats so that instruction and learning can take place in the online environment.
On the topic of instructional design approaches, Mager (2006) states that “since not everything can be learned at once, instruction must be offered in some sort of sequence.” Organizing content to be learned into a sequential pattern can be considered the initial step in planning out a logical learning framework (Mager, 2006).
Multiple considerations including learning theories should be considered in addition to the content to be learned. “The different approaches to instructional design are nowhere more obvious than in the ever-growing list of models” (Moore, Bates, & Grundling).
Models of instruction are usually graphed out as either linear or non-linear design approaches. In spite of this, the ideologies that support each of the models appear to have related aspects usual to other models.
Best practices assure that methods of design and instruction meet accepted quality standards for effective learning outcomes. The Sloan-C Consortium provides peer reviewed tried and true “Effective Practices” and invites educational designers and practitioners to contribute new practices on a continual basis.
In the simplest of terms, SCORM compliance ensures that content and learning objects written in one format, content management system, or **learning management system** will be transferable, readable, and usable in any other format, content management system, or learning management system.
History of Instructional Design Models
Modern instructional design models emerged during a historical period of national crisis. According to Leigh, “the advent of the Second World War presented a tremendous instructional dilemma: the rapid training of hundreds of thousands of military personnel” was urgently needed. During this time, psychologists and educators were recruited to design efficient instructional design models.Instructional Design: Art & Science
Nichols (2008) views instructional design as both "art and science." Given the complexity of the design process using models as templates, Nichols supports the idea that "designers must still make key decisions to ensure that structured learning takes place, and they must emphasize particular learning outcomes." The "art" is equated with designers' abilities to work "innovately" within the "science" of a framework.Definitions
****Instructional design**** is the systematic process of translating general principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials and learning.****Instructional designers****: According to Herrington and Oliver (2002), “designers need to consider and plan the learning processes that will provide learners with the experiences that will help them to learn. The learning processes need to be carefully planned with the intended learning outcomes in mind. Planning the learning experiences involves consideration of ways to engage the learners in ways that will cause the required forms of cognition and thinking. The learning activities need to involve a variety of processes that will cause the learners to deal meaningfully with appropriate resources and information.”
An ****instructional systems design (ISD)**** for distance learning is an organizational plan or format used to achieve instructional or pedagogical goals. It is an approach or set of rules for achieving technology-based instruction.
****Pedagogical strategy**** is the method of delivering face-to-face or online instruction.
According to Johnson (1997) (2), ideal instructional design strategy includes incorporation of “behavioral learning theory (e.g., positive reinforcement and repetition), cognitive learning theory (e.g., address multiple senses, present new information in motivating ways, limit the amount of information presented, and connect new information to prior knowledge), and social learning theory (e.g., encourage group interaction, peer assessment, and personal feedback). Adopting a synthesized theory of learning can have a synergistic result by integrating the most positive and powerful aspects of each individual.”
According to Morrison, Ross, & Kemp (2007), a well-designed **instructional strategy** prompts or motivates learners to actively construct meaning between what they already know and new knowledge being presented (as cited in Wittrock, 1974, 1989, & Jonassen, 1985, & Grabowski, 1996).
Four Approaches to Instructional Design
According to Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, & Zvacek (2006) there are four traditional course design approaches: Linear-designed instruction; branch-designed instruction, hypercontent-designed instruction, and learner-directed design.The ****linear-designed**** approach is based on module organization that allows learners to transition through series of readings and tasks in specific and ordered processions. Learning is sequentially organized (Simonson et al., 2006).
Branch-designed instruction allows more flexibility in the order that readings and tasks are accomplished. This format is basically linear with opportunities for learners to further study in a particular area or to move on to the next level or module. There are built-in assessments that allow students to re-try learning or to move students backward to remedial areas of instruction (Simonson et al., 2006).
Hypercontent design, according to Simonson et al. (2006), “topics can be studied in a random, non-sequential manner.” Additionally, they state that students working within this framework have control over the topics studied and can do so without direct instructor control. This concept typically includes text and multimedia components such as video, audio, graphics, and pictures.
Learner-directed design allows students to completely determine navigation through a course. According to Simonson et al. (2006), “learners construct their own instructional strategies and even their own instructional design.” This is considered a constructivist design model that supports completely learner driven objectives. The authors caution, however, that learners “require considerable talent and effort…to be successful” in this type of learning environment.
Commonly Used Instructional Design Models
ADDIE is an acronym that stands for a five step design process. This model seems to be the most universally accepted, and is often used as an underlying design platform to which elements from other models are added. According to Kruse (2009), “the ADDIE model has been criticized by some as being too systematic, that is, too linear, too inflexible, too constraining, and even too time-consuming to implement."Analysis --> Design --> Development --> Implementation --> Evaluation
The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model was originally published in 1978, and later editions (1990) by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled ****The Systematic Design of Instruction****.
According to Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes." With this nine-step model, components are executed iteratively and in parallel rather than linearly.
Kemp Model of Instructional Design is a six-step non-linear plan.
Gagne Model of Instruction is a nine-step instructional plan that ****Robert Gagne**** conceived based on the premise that certain “instructional events” must occur in order for learning to take place.
ASSURE integrates components of ****Gagne’s**** model for effective multimedia use.
ASSURE Model
Analyze learners
State objectives
Select instructional methods, media, and materials
Utilize media and materials
Require learner participation
Evaluate and revise
References
Dick, W. & Carey, L. (1990). The systematic design of instruction. Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman/Little, Brown Higher Education.Herrington, J. (2002). Online learning design for dummies: Professional development strategies for beginning online designers. Edith Cowan University. Retrieved June 21, 2009, from http://elrond.scam.ecu.edu.au/oliver/2002/edmedia1.pdf
Johnson, S. & Aragon, S., In Egan, T. & Lynham, S. (Eds.), Proceedings of the academy for human resource development (pp. 1022- 1029). Bowling Green, OH: AHRD.
Kruse, K. Introduction to instructional design and the ADDIE model. Retrieved July 2, 2009, from http://www.e-learningguru.com/articles/art2_1.htm
Leigh, D. A brief history of instructional design. The International Society for Performance Improvement. Retrieved June 21, 2009, from http://www.pigncispi.com/articles/education/brief%20history.htm
Mager, R. F. (1988). Making instruction work. Belmont, CA: Lake Publishing Co.
Mager, R. F. (2006). Making instruction work (Rev. 2nd ed.). Atlanta, GA: CEP Press.
Martin, F. (2008). Effects of practice in a linear and non-linear web-based learning environment. Educational Technology & Society, 11 (4), 81–93.
Moore, D., Bates, A., & Grundling, J. Instructional design. Commonwealth of Learning. Chapter 08. Retrieved June 21, 2009, from http://www.col.org/SiteCollectionDocuments/Skills_Chapter08.pdf
Morrison, G., Ross, S., & Kemp, J. (2007). Designing effective instruction (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Jonh Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Nichols, M. Laidlaw College, Auckland, New Zealand, (August 2008). E-primer series – designing for e-learning. No. 3: designing for e-learning (p. 9).
Simonson, M., Smaldino, S., Albright, M., & Zvacek, S. (2006). Teaching and learning at a distance (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
External Links
http://www.coe.uh.edu/courses/cuin6373/whatisid.html What is instructional design
http://www.spsu.edu/htc/hughes/papers/interface.htm Hughes, learning theories and instructional design
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i_TKaO2-jXA Mitchell, instructional design models and history
http://edwebsfiles.ed.uiuc.edu/hre/online/research/online_strategies.pdf Johnson, Aragon, an instructional strategy framework for online learning environments
http://www.adlnet.org/Documents/SCORM%20FAQ.aspx#scormq1 Advanced distributed learning FAQs
http://www.uh.cu/static/documents/TD/Effects%20Practice%20Linear%20Non-linear.pdf Martin, effects of practice in a linear and non-linear web-based learning environment
http://www.sloanconsortium.org/effective/index.asp Effective practices
http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/InstructionalDesign.htm Siemens (2002), Instructional design in elearning
http://www.instructionaldesigncentral.com/htm/IDC_instructionaldesigndefinitions.htm Instructional design central, definitions
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Instructional_systems_design Edutech wiki, instructional design systems definition
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PedagogyWikipedia, pedagogy definition
http://www.digitecdev.net/devlearn08/digitec_sample_instructional_design.pdf Digitech, instructional design strategy
http://www.learning-theories.com/addie-model.html Learning-theories, ADDIE model definition
http://www.umich.edu/~ed626/Dick_Carey/dc.html University of Michigan, Dick & Carey model definition
http://med.fsu.edu/education/FacultyDevelopment/objectives.asp Florida State University, behavioral objectives
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Kemp_design_model Edutech wiki, Kemp design model definition
http://www.e-learningguru.com/articles/art3_3.htm Kruse, Gagne's nine events of instruction: an introduction
http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/aa/landt/lt/docs/atid.htm Bostock, Keele University, Gagne, the conditions of learning
http://www.skagitwatershed.org/~donclark/hrd/learning/id/nine_step_id.html Clark, Gagne's nine steps of instruction
http://www.unca.edu/education/edtech/techcourse/assure.htm Heinich, Molenda, Russell, Smaldino (1999), the ASSURE model